Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptors (PPARs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor super family, which are ligand-activated transcription factors regulating gene expression. Various subtypes of PPARs have been discovered. These include PPARα, PPARβ or NUC1, PPARγ and PPARδ.
The PPARα receptor subtypes are reported to be activated by medium and long-chain fatty acids. They are involved in stimulating beta-oxidation of fatty acids and with the activity of fibrates which reportedly produce a substantial reduction in plasma triglycerides and moderate reduction in low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. The PPARγ receptor subtypes are reportedly involved in activating the program of adipocyte differentiation and are not involved in stimulating peroxisome proliferation in the liver.
Diabetes is a disease in which a mammal's ability to regulate glucose levels in the blood is impaired because the mammal has a reduced ability to convert glucose to glycogen for storage in muscle and liver cells. In Type I diabetes, this reduced ability to store glucose is caused by reduced insulin production. “Type II Diabetes” or “non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus” (NIDDM) is the form of diabetes which is due to a profound resistance to insulin stimulating or regulatory effect on glucose and lipid metabolism in the main insulin-sensitive tissues, muscle, liver and adipose tissue. This resistance to insulin responsiveness results in insufficient insulin activation of glucose uptake, oxidation and storage in muscle and inadequate insulin repression of lipolysis in adipose tissue and of glucose production and secretion in liver. When these cells become desensitized to insulin, the body tries to compensate by producing abnormally high levels of insulin and hyperinsulemia results. Hyperinsulemia is associated with hypertension and elevated body weight. Since insulin is involved in promoting the cellular uptake of glucose, amino acids and triglycerides from the blood by insulin sensitive cells, insulin insensitivity can result in elevated levels of triglycerides and LDL which are risk factors in cardiovascular diseases. The constellation of symptoms which includes hyperinsulemia combined with hypertension, elevated body weight, elevated triglycerides and elevated LDL is known as Syndrome X.
Current treatment for diabetes mellitus generally first involves treatment with diet and exercise. However, compliance can be poor and as the disease progresses treatment with hypoglycemics, typically sulfonylureas, is often necessary. Sulfonylureas stimulate the β cells of the liver to secrete more insulin. However, the response of the β cells eventually fails and treatment with insulin injection is necessary. In addition, both sulfonylurea treatment and insulin injection have the life threatening side effect of hypoglycemic coma. Therefore, patients using these treatments must carefully control dosage.
Thiazolidinediones are a class of compounds which have been shown to increase the sensitivity of insulin sensitive cells. Increasing insulin sensitivity rather than the amount of insulin in the blood reduces the likelihood of hypoglycemic coma. Thiazolidinediones have been shown to increase insulin sensitivity by binding to PPARγ receptors. However, side effects associated with treatment with thiazolidinediones include weight gain, and, for troglitazone, liver toxicity.
PPARα and PPARγ receptors have been implicated in diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and gastrointestinal disease, such as, inflammatory bowel disease. There exists a need for new pharmaceutical agents which modulate these receptors to prevent, treat and/or alleviate these diseases or conditions while ameliorating side effects of current treatments.